View source for Nanopore sequencing

{{Short description|Method of reading DNA or RNA by passing single strands through a nanometer-wide pore and recording the ionic current}}
{{For|the history of the technique|History of nanopore sequencing}}
'''Nanopore sequencing''' is a method of reading the order of bases in DNA or RNA by passing a single strand through a pore a nanometer wide, in a membrane, and recording the electric current. The bases in the narrowest part of the pore change the current, each base or short run of bases leaving a characteristic level, and software turns the trace into a sequence. In the best-known instruments a motor protein feeds the strand through a protein pore at about 400 bases a second and a neural network decodes the signal.<ref name="dorado">{{cite web |url=https://github.com/nanoporetech/dorado |title=Dorado: decoding Dorado model names |website=GitHub |publisher=Oxford Nanopore Technologies |access-date=2026-10-25}}</ref>

The method reads native DNA and RNA without amplification or fluorescent labels, gives reads as long as the molecules that survive preparation, and returns data while a run is under way. Its raw reads were at first far less accurate than those of short-read sequencing, and their maker now reports modal accuracies above 99%. [[Oxford Nanopore Technologies]] has supplied instruments since the MinION reached its first users in 2014, and other companies have since launched nanopore sequencers of their own. No solid-state pore has yet been reported to read an unknown DNA sequence base by base. A review of 2020 put it that the signal-to-noise ratio "has not yet allowed de novo DNA sequencing with solid-state pores", and a review of 2025 lists limited spatial resolution, fast translocation and noise as the obstacles.<ref name="fragasso">{{cite journal |last1=Fragasso |first1=A. |last2=Schmid |first2=S. |last3=Dekker |first3=C. |title=Comparing current noise in biological and solid-state nanopores |journal=ACS Nano |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=1338-1349 |year=2020 |doi=10.1021/acsnano.9b09353 |pmid=32049492}}</ref><ref name="zhou">{{cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Y. |last2=et al. |title=Advances and challenges in solid-state nanopores for DNA sequencing |journal=Langmuir |volume=41 |issue=9 |pages=5736-5761 |year=2025 |doi=10.1021/acs.langmuir.4c04961 |pmid=40013668}}</ref> [[Molecular Reality Corporation]] builds solid-state pores and says of the goal in its guide: "That is the plan, and I flag it as a plan."<ref name="faq">{{cite web |url=https://molecularreality.com/FAQ |title=Keltar's Field Guide to Molecular Reality |publisher=Molecular Reality Corporation |date=August 2026}}</ref>

== Development ==
The idea of reading a strand through a pore was first proposed in the 1980s.<ref name="rang">{{cite journal |last1=Rang |first1=F. J. |last2=Kloosterman |first2=W. P. |last3=de Ridder |first3=J. |title=From squiggle to basepair: computational approaches for improving nanopore sequencing read accuracy |journal=Genome Biology |volume=19 |pages=90 |year=2018 |doi=10.1186/s13059-018-1462-9 |pmid=30005597}}</ref> In 1996 single strands of DNA and RNA were detected crossing a protein channel, and the authors concluded: "With further improvements, the method could in principle provide direct, high-speed detection of the sequence of bases in single molecules of DNA or RNA."<ref name="kas1996">{{cite journal |last1=Kasianowicz |first1=J. J. |last2=Brandin |first2=E. |last3=Branton |first3=D. |last4=Deamer |first4=D. W. |title=Characterization of individual polynucleotide molecules using a membrane channel |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=93 |issue=24 |pages=13770-13773 |year=1996 |doi=10.1073/pnas.93.24.13770 |pmid=8943010}}</ref> Enzymes that slowed the strand arrived in 2012, the MinION reached its first users in 2014, and in 2016 the company changed to the R9 pore, derived from the bacterial protein CsgG.<ref name="r9">{{cite web |url=https://nanoporetech.com/news/news-update-new-r9-nanopore-faster-more-accurate-sequencing-and-new-ten-minute-preparation |title=Update: New "R9" nanopore for faster, more accurate sequencing, and new ten minute preparation kit |publisher=Oxford Nanopore Technologies |date=May 26, 2016 |access-date=2026-10-25}}</ref> The full account is in [[History of nanopore sequencing]]. The first patent for nanopore sequencing, in the account of Deamer, Akeson and Branton, is US 5,795,782 of 1998, which names five inventors. One of them, [[George Church]], is an investor in Molecular Reality Corporation.<ref name="pat5795782">{{cite web |url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US5795782A/en |title=US5795782A: Characterization of individual polymer molecules based on monomer-interface interactions |website=Google Patents |date=August 18, 1998 |access-date=2026-10-25}}</ref><ref name="deamer">{{cite journal |last1=Deamer |first1=D. |last2=Akeson |first2=M. |last3=Branton |first3=D. |title=Three decades of nanopore sequencing |journal=Nature Biotechnology |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=518-524 |year=2016 |doi=10.1038/nbt.3423 |pmid=27153285}}</ref><ref name="records">{{cite web |title=Company records |publisher=Molecular Reality Corporation |date=October 2026}}</ref>

== Principle ==
[[File:Nanopore_sequencing_ratchet.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.3|alt=A motor protein on a DNA strand at the mouth of a protein pore in a membrane, above a staircase of current levels|Strand sequencing. The motor protein ratchets the strand through the pore a step at a time, and each step sets a new current level.]]
A flow cell holds an array of membranes, each pierced by one protein nanopore and read through its own channel of an application-specific integrated circuit. Oxford Nanopore describes the membrane as "an electrically-resistant polymer membrane".<ref name="flowcells">{{cite web |url=https://nanoporetech.com/platform/technology/flow-cells-and-nanopores |title=Flow cells and nanopores |publisher=Oxford Nanopore Technologies |access-date=2026-10-25}}</ref> A description of the MinION in 2016 gave its flow cell 2,048 pores in separate membranes, of which 512 are monitored at a time.<ref name="deamer" /> A voltage across each membrane drives an [[ionic current]] through its pore. During library preparation, sequencing adapters pre-loaded with a motor protein are attached to the molecules to be read. The motor protein associates with a pore and controls the speed at which the molecule passes through it.<ref name="ontech">{{cite web |url=https://nanoporetech.com/platform/technology |title=Nanopore sequencing technology |publisher=Oxford Nanopore Technologies |access-date=2026-10-25}}</ref> With double-stranded DNA the motor unzips the duplex and passes one strand through the pore.<ref name="rang" />

The motor is the difference between detecting DNA and reading it. A strand driven through a pore by the field alone moves each base past the sensing region in less than about 1 to 10 µs, and identifying a base from currents of picoamperes takes more than 100 µs.<ref name="deamer" /> An enzyme at the mouth of the pore, a helicase or a polymerase, ratchets the strand through in discrete steps. The first combinations of an enzyme with a protein pore that read a strand step by step were reported in 2012.<ref name="cherf">{{cite journal |last1=Cherf |first1=G. M. |last2=et al. |title=Automated forward and reverse ratcheting of DNA in a nanopore at 5-Å precision |journal=Nature Biotechnology |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=344-348 |year=2012 |doi=10.1038/nbt.2147}}</ref><ref name="manrao">{{cite journal |last1=Manrao |first1=E. A. |last2=et al. |title=Reading DNA at single-nucleotide resolution with a mutant MspA nanopore and phi29 DNA polymerase |journal=Nature Biotechnology |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=349-353 |year=2012 |doi=10.1038/nbt.2171}}</ref> At 400 bases a second, the speed of current kits, each base stays in the pore for 2.5 ms, hundreds of times longer than in unassisted passage, and the data are sampled at 5 kHz, which gives 12.5 samples a base.<ref name="dorado" />

=== The reader head ===
The pore's narrowest region is longer than one base, so each current level reflects several. For the R9 pore, Oxford Nanopore reports that the three central bases mainly determine the signal, with a smaller influence from more distant ones.<ref name="rang" /> The level tables that Oxford Nanopore publishes are indexed by six-base words for the R9.4 pore, 4,096 of them, and by nine-base words for R10.4.1, 262,144.<ref name="kmer">{{cite web |url=https://github.com/nanoporetech/kmer_models |title=kmer_models |website=GitHub |publisher=Oxford Nanopore Technologies |access-date=2026-10-25}}</ref> The R10 series of pores "contains a double reader-head". A 2020 paper on a prototype pore with two constrictions, made by combining CsgG with a 35-residue fragment of CsgF, put the second constriction about 25 Å from the first and reported single-read accuracy improved by 25 to 70% in homopolymers up to nine nucleotides long.<ref name="dual">{{cite journal |last1=Van der Verren |first1=S. E. |last2=et al. |title=A dual-constriction biological nanopore resolves homonucleotide sequences with high fidelity |journal=Nature Biotechnology |volume=38 |pages=1415-1420 |year=2020 |doi=10.1038/s41587-020-0570-8}}</ref><ref name="flo114">{{cite web |url=https://store.nanoporetech.com/flow-cell-r10-4-1-114.html |title=Flow Cell (R10.4.1) |publisher=Oxford Nanopore Technologies |access-date=2026-10-25}}</ref> The current of an R9.4 pore with a strand in it spans 59 to 120 pA over the 4,096 words, and for about one pair in five of words that differ by a single base the expected levels differ by less than 1 pA, less than the typical noise within a level (see [[Nanopore noise]]).<ref name="kmer" />

A 2018 review lists four reasons the reads are hard to decode: the structural similarity of the bases, the influence of several bases on one level, the uneven speed of the motor, and the fact that the signal does not change within a homopolymer, a run of one base. The length of such a run has to be inferred from the time spent in it, which varies from molecule to molecule.<ref name="rang" />

== Basecalling ==
{{Main|Basecalling}}
[[Basecalling]] turns the raw signal, called the squiggle, into letters. The first basecallers cut the trace into events and applied hidden Markov models, and later ones use recurrent and convolutional neural networks.<ref name="rang" /> The present basecaller, Dorado, comes in three sizes of model, fast, hac and sup, of which sup is the most accurate and the slowest. A model's name records the chemistry and speed it was trained for, as in <code>dna_r10.4.1_e8.2_400bps_sup</code>, for the R10.4.1 pore with Kit 14 at 400 bases a second, followed by a version number.<ref name="dorado" /> A comparison of neural-network basecallers in 2019 found that training on data from one taxon raised consensus accuracy mostly by removing errors in methylation motifs, and that a larger network improved accuracy at a cost in speed.<ref name="wick">{{cite journal |last1=Wick |first1=R. R. |last2=Judd |first2=L. M. |last3=Holt |first3=K. E. |title=Performance of neural network basecalling tools for Oxford Nanopore sequencing |journal=Genome Biology |volume=20 |pages=129 |year=2019 |doi=10.1186/s13059-019-1727-y}}</ref>

Because the strand itself is in the pore, chemical modifications that change the current can be called from the same data. Dorado carries models for 5-methylcytosine and 5-hydroxymethylcytosine, 4-methylcytosine and 6-methyladenine.<ref name="dorado" /> Calling 5-methylcytosine from MinION data was reported in 2017 by two groups in the same issue of ''Nature Methods''.<ref name="simpson">{{cite journal |last1=Simpson |first1=J. T. |last2=et al. |title=Detecting DNA cytosine methylation using nanopore sequencing |journal=Nature Methods |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=407-410 |year=2017 |doi=10.1038/nmeth.4184 |pmid=28218898}}</ref><ref name="rand">{{cite journal |last1=Rand |first1=A. C. |last2=et al. |title=Mapping DNA methylation with high-throughput nanopore sequencing |journal=Nature Methods |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=411-413 |year=2017 |doi=10.1038/nmeth.4189 |pmid=28218897}}</ref> RNA can be read directly, without conversion to DNA.<ref name="garalde">{{cite journal |last1=Garalde |first1=D. R. |last2=et al. |title=Highly parallel direct RNA sequencing on an array of nanopores |journal=Nature Methods |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=201-206 |year=2018 |doi=10.1038/nmeth.4577 |pmid=29334379}}</ref>

== Accuracy ==
Accuracy is quoted as a percentage of correct bases or as a Phred quality score ''Q'', where Q20 means one error in 100 bases and Q30 one in 1,000. Raw reads have improved with each generation of pore, motor and basecaller.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Reported accuracy of single reads
! Generation !! Reported accuracy !! Source
|-
| First MinION flow cells, 2014 || Below 60% || <ref name="rang" />
|-
| R9.4 and R9.5 pores, 2018 review || Approximately 85% || <ref name="rang" />
|-
| Mature MinION flow cell and basecaller, 2021 study || Errors of about 6% (low-GC reads) to 8% (high-GC reads), about half of them in homopolymers and short repeats || <ref name="delahaye">{{cite journal |last1=Delahaye |first1=C. |last2=et al. |title=Sequencing DNA with nanopores: troubles and biases |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=16 |issue=10 |pages=e0257521 |year=2021 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0257521}}</ref>
|-
| R10.4 pore with Kit 12 ("Q20+"), 2021 || Above Q20 for single reads; duplex reads around Q30 (reported by the maker) || <ref name="ont2021">{{cite web |url=https://nanoporetech.com/news/news-oxford-nanopore-announces-technology-updates-nanopore-community-meeting |title=Oxford Nanopore announces technology updates at Nanopore Community Meeting |publisher=Oxford Nanopore Technologies |date=December 1, 2021 |access-date=2026-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| R10.4.1 pore with Kit 14, 2022 on || Modal accuracy above 99% (reported by the maker) || <ref name="flo114" />
|}
The 2021 duplex figure refers to reads in which the two strands of one molecule are read in turn and combined, and the maker reported that the longest read at Q30 so far was 156 kilobases.<ref name="ont2021" /> Independent tests of the Q20+ chemistry were more modest at first. On amplicons of SARS-CoV-2, the average accuracy rose from 96.52% for the earlier pore and kit to 98.34%, and the share of reads above 99% from 0.61% to 30.1%, with the consensus matching short-read sequencing.<ref name="luo">{{cite journal |last1=Luo |first1=J. |last2=et al. |title=Systematic benchmarking of nanopore Q20+ kit in SARS-CoV-2 whole genome sequencing |journal=Frontiers in Microbiology |volume=13 |pages=973367 |year=2022 |doi=10.3389/fmicb.2022.973367 |pmid=36312982}}</ref> A test on bacterial genomes with the Kit 14 chemistry found that assemblies from nanopore reads alone were accurate at a depth of 40-fold or more, using updated basecallers that had been trained on methylated bacterial DNA to fix common systematic substitutions.<ref name="sanderson">{{cite journal |last1=Sanderson |first1=N. D. |last2=et al. |title=Evaluation of the accuracy of bacterial genome reconstruction with Oxford Nanopore R10.4.1 long-read-only sequencing |journal=Microbial Genomics |volume=10 |issue=5 |year=2024 |doi=10.1099/mgen.0.001246 |pmid=38713194}}</ref> The maker's accuracy page states that raw reads "now achieve 99.75% (Q26) accuracy" with the latest models.<ref name="accuracy">{{cite web |url=https://nanoporetech.com/platform/accuracy |title=Accuracy |publisher=Oxford Nanopore Technologies |access-date=2026-10-25}}</ref>

== Uses ==
Nothing in the method fixes a read length. The maker says that a read "is only limited by the length of the DNA or RNA presented for sequencing", gives the range as 20 to 4,000,000 bases, and says samples can be prepared in as little as 10 minutes. Because the strand is not amplified, native DNA and RNA are analyzed directly and keep their base modifications.<ref name="ontech" /> Read length and portability opened the first applications. In April 2015 a sequencing laboratory transported in standard airline luggage to Guinea sequenced 142 samples of Ebola virus, returning results less than 24 hours after a positive sample arrived, with sequencing taking as little as 15 to 60 minutes, for genomic surveillance ([[Biosurveillance]]).<ref name="quick">{{cite journal |last1=Quick |first1=J. |last2=et al. |title=Real-time, portable genome sequencing for Ebola surveillance |journal=Nature |volume=530 |issue=7589 |pages=228-232 |year=2016 |doi=10.1038/nature16996 |pmid=26840485}}</ref> A MinION also went to the International Space Station, where nine runs over six months produced 276,882 reads, and the genome of ''Escherichia coli'' assembled from the raw reads into a single contig covering 99.9% of the genome at 98.6% identity.<ref name="iss">{{cite journal |last1=Castro-Wallace |first1=S. L. |last2=et al. |title=Nanopore DNA sequencing and genome assembly on the International Space Station |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=7 |pages=18022 |year=2017 |doi=10.1038/s41598-017-18364-0 |pmid=29269933}}</ref> Ultra-long reads were used to finish the human X chromosome, including its centromeric satellite array of about 3.1 Mb, the first human chromosome assembled from end to end.<ref name="miga">{{cite journal |last1=Miga |first1=K. H. |last2=et al. |title=Telomere-to-telomere assembly of a complete human X chromosome |journal=Nature |volume=585 |issue=7823 |pages=79-84 |year=2020 |doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2547-7 |pmid=32663838}}</ref> Because the pore reads a strand while it moves, software can also choose what to read, ejecting a molecule it does not want by reversing the voltage.<ref name="loose">{{cite journal |last1=Loose |first1=M. |last2=Malla |first2=S. |last3=Stout |first3=M. |title=Real-time selective sequencing using nanopore technology |journal=Nature Methods |volume=13 |issue=9 |pages=751-754 |year=2016 |doi=10.1038/nmeth.3930 |pmid=27454285}}</ref>

== Suppliers ==
Oxford Nanopore Technologies began in 2005 as a spinout from the University of Oxford's Department of Chemistry and floated on the London Stock Exchange in 2021.<ref name="oxford">{{cite web |url=https://www.chem.ox.ac.uk/node/2257896 |title=Oxford Nanopore Technologies floated on the London Stock Exchange |publisher=Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford |date=October 25, 2021 |access-date=2026-10-25}}</ref> Its instruments are the [[MinION]], the GridION and the [[PromethION]], and its smallest flow cell is the [[Flongle]]. A 2024 study of the QNome sequencer of Qitan Technology, a company in Chengdu, described it as making Qitan the second supplier of nanopore sequencers.<ref name="qnome">{{cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=T. T. |last2=et al. |title=Nanopore sequencing of forensic short tandem repeats using QNome of Qitan Technology |journal=Electrophoresis |volume=45 |issue=17-18 |pages=1535-1545 |year=2024 |doi=10.1002/elps.202300270 |pmid=38884206}}</ref> [[Axbio]], of Santa Clara, California, lists its AxiLona AXP-100 as a nanopore gene sequencer and describes a Bio-CMOS sequencing chip.<ref name="axbio">{{cite web |url=https://www.axbio.com |title=Axbio |publisher=Axbio |access-date=2026-10-25}}</ref> On June 29, 2026 Roche launched AXELIOS 1, for research use only, built on its [[Sequencing by expansion]] chemistry. That chemistry converts DNA or RNA into surrogate molecules about fifty times longer, which a CMOS sensor with millions of nanopores reads, and Roche gives reads of up to about 1,500 bases.<ref name="roche">{{cite web |url=https://www.roche.com/media/releases/med-cor-2026-06-29 |title=Roche announces the launch of AXELIOS 1, a transformative next-generation sequencing platform |publisher=Roche |date=June 29, 2026 |access-date=2026-10-25}}</ref> The leading methods that do not use nanopores are the sequencing by synthesis of [[Illumina]] and the single-molecule real-time sequencing of [[Pacific Biosciences]].

== Limits ==
A flow cell is a consumable with a clock on it. Oxford Nanopore says to store flow cells unopened at 2 to 8 °C, gives each a warranty of 12 weeks from receipt, and says a flow cell holds buffer to run for about 72 hours under optimal conditions; it replaces an unused flow cell that has fewer than 800 nanopores at the start.<ref name="flo114" /> In a 2021 study of what was then the mature chemistry, homopolymers and short repeats were the source of about half of all errors, which were mostly deletions.<ref name="delahaye" /> Larger basecalling models take more time, which is why Dorado offers three sizes.<ref name="dorado" />

== Solid-state pores ==
{{Main|Solid-state nanopore}}
Pores in silicon nitride and other inorganic membranes survive heat, dryness and chemistry that destroy protein pores, and their size can be chosen at fabrication. They are also noisier and less uniform, and DNA crosses them too fast to read.<ref name="fragasso" /> In ultrathin membranes of graphene or molybdenum disulfide, DNA moves at 3 to 50 bases a microsecond, and reading at that speed needs megahertz bandwidths.<ref name="feng">{{cite journal |last1=Feng |first1=J. |last2=et al. |title=Identification of single nucleotides in MoS2 nanopores |journal=Nature Nanotechnology |volume=10 |issue=12 |pages=1070-1076 |year=2015 |doi=10.1038/nnano.2015.219 |pmid=26389660}}</ref> An amplifier built for the purpose has recorded at 10 MHz, with a signal-to-noise ratio above 10 for single-stranded DNA at 5 MHz in sub-2 nm pores, but a base spends only a few hundred nanoseconds in the pore.<ref name="shekar">{{cite journal |last1=Shekar |first1=S. |last2=et al. |title=Measurement of DNA translocation dynamics in a solid-state nanopore at 100 ns temporal resolution |journal=Nano Letters |volume=16 |issue=7 |pages=4483-4489 |year=2016 |doi=10.1021/acs.nanolett.6b01661 |pmid=27332998}}</ref> The length of the sensing region is a second obstacle. In a solid-state pore it is the thickness of the membrane: about 5 nm for silicon nitride, against 0.7 nm for molybdenum disulfide.<ref name="fragasso" /> A stem 5 nm long, as in alpha-hemolysin, puts about 12 bases into each current level, and silicon nitride pores are about as long.<ref name="deamer" />

Each step of the problem has had partial results. Silicon nitride pores 0.8 to 2 nm wide told apart 30-base homopolymers of A, C and T at a signal-to-noise ratio above 10 at 1 MHz, a result the authors called "an important milestone" while noting that identifying sequences within a molecule would need further improvements in sensitivity and noise.<ref name="venta">{{cite journal |last1=Venta |first1=K. |last2=et al. |title=Differentiation of short, single-stranded DNA homopolymers in solid-state nanopores |journal=ACS Nano |volume=7 |issue=5 |pages=4629-4636 |year=2013 |doi=10.1021/nn4014388 |pmid=23621759}}</ref> A viscosity gradient of ionic liquid slowed DNA through a molybdenum disulfide pore enough to identify all four nucleotides statistically, with a signal-to-noise ratio above 10.<ref name="feng" /> Osmium tags on pyrimidine bases gave strands different blockade amplitudes in a silicon nitride pore according to how many bases were tagged, which the authors presented as a proof of principle.<ref name="henley">{{cite journal |last1=Henley |first1=R. Y. |last2=et al. |title=Osmium-based pyrimidine contrast tags for enhanced nanopore-based DNA base discrimination |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=10 |issue=12 |pages=e0142155 |year=2015 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0142155 |pmid=26657869}}</ref> Genome mapping finds the positions of tags along long DNA without reading the bases between them. With pairs of solid-state pores a company-led team, working with a university laboratory, reached 3.1-fold coverage across 2,355 resolvable sites of the 4.6 Mb ''E. coli'' chromosome in 5.6 hours of recording, with an intertag resolution of 150 bp in engineered DNA.<ref name="rand2022">{{cite journal |last1=Rand |first1=A. |last2=et al. |title=Electronic mapping of a bacterial genome with dual solid-state nanopores and active single-molecule control |journal=ACS Nano |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=5258-5273 |year=2022 |doi=10.1021/acsnano.1c09575}}</ref> What remains unpublished is a base-by-base read of an unknown sequence.

Molecular Reality Corporation's approach is to slow the molecule mechanically. A [[juxtapore]] is "a pore formed by two surfaces sliding alongside each other", and the company's guide says of true sequencing: "No solid state pore has done it commercially yet. Our mechanical valve work on juxtapores exists precisely because reading requires slowing the molecule down, and slowing molecules down is what sliding occlusion is for."<ref name="faq" /> A feature in ''Signal & Noise'' of October 2026 concluded that holding a molecule still long enough to read it is the step between [[sliding occlusion]] and sequencing, and that no one has shown it with a juxtapore.<ref name="p5">{{cite news |title=Can a Hole That Slides Read a Molecule? |work=Signal & Noise |author=Lenora Ashgrove |date=2026-10-08 |url=/press/signal-noise/2026/10/08/sliding-holes}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Biological nanopore]]
* [[Motor protein (nanopore)]]
* [[Protein sequencing]]
* [[Nanopore protein sequencing]]
* [[Machine learning on nanopore signals]]
* [[List of nanopore companies]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite journal |last1=Branton |first1=D. |last2=et al. |title=The potential and challenges of nanopore sequencing |journal=Nature Biotechnology |volume=26 |issue=10 |pages=1146-1153 |year=2008 |doi=10.1038/nbt.1495}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Jain |first1=M. |last2=Olsen |first2=H. E. |last3=Paten |first3=B. |last4=Akeson |first4=M. |title=The Oxford Nanopore MinION: delivery of nanopore sequencing to the genomics community |journal=Genome Biology |volume=17 |pages=239 |year=2016 |doi=10.1186/s13059-016-1103-0}}

{{Nanopores}}
{{Nanopore companies}}
{{Portal bar|Nanopores|Molecular Reality}}

[[Category:Nanopore sequencing]]
[[Category:DNA sequencing]]
[[Category:Nanopores]]